Review Article |
Corresponding author: Ulrich Zeller ( ulrich.zeller@agrar.hu-berlin.de ) Academic editor: Ingmar Werneburg
© 2021 Ulrich Zeller, Thomas Göttert.
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
Citation:
Zeller U, Göttert T (2021) Humans, megafauna and landscape structure – Rock engravings from Namibia encourage a comparative approach to central Europe and southern Africa. Vertebrate Zoology 71: 631-643. https://doi.org/10.3897/vz.71.e72811
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This paper deals with reflections that arose after observing prehistoric rock engravings at different locations in Namibia. These observations stimulated comparative considerations with focus on southern Africa and central Europe. Similar to the Aurignacian rock art of European origin, the most common motifs in the Namibian rock engravings are large animals. While in Europe, the species that served as a blueprint for the illustration of Aurignacian rock art have mostly disappeared, the megafauna illustrated on the rock engravings in Namibia can still be found in the immediate vicinity of the rock art. Against this background, we discuss and further develop a comparative regional approach. We reconstruct and evaluate the suitability of African savannas and still-existing megafauna communities as an appropriate reference-frame for natural European grassland systems and extinct associated warm-adapted megafauna (Eemian Interglacial megafauna). Special attention is laid on the unique situation in Africa in the light of a global extinction wave of megafauna following increasing human activity in the Late Quaternary. This leads us to discuss the use of domesticated ungulates as surrogate taxa to fulfill ecosystem functions in Europe as part of concepts termed “rewilding” or “naturalistic grazing”. After critically examining these concepts, we conclude that using domesticated forms as representatives of extinct or locally disappeared species in Europe has its justification to some extent. If, however, the naturally occurring megaherbivore community still exists (Africa), these naturally occurring species should be given priority due to their organismic abilities and limitations adapted to the harsh conditions in their specific environment. Finally, we discuss the application of (transboundary) protected areas as effective instruments to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts. A holistic approach, including nature conservation and preservation of cultural achievements (domesticated forms, grazing systems), appears promising for the effective protection of the natural African savanna ecosystems with their unique fauna elements, as illustrated in rock engravings that inspired us to write this paper.
domesticated forms, megaherbivores, prehistoric rock art, surrogate taxa, transboundary protected areas
The ideas and considerations presented in this article arose as a result of numerous excursions and field trips conducted during the previous decades by the authors to the southern African sub-region and to Namibia in particular. One aspect, which was never the central point of these excursions, but which gave rise to ongoing reflections, is the observation of rock engravings. The motivation to publish the outcome of our considerations in this volume is that Wolfgang Maier frequently expressed his interest in the African fauna and in questions related to the African continent as the cradle of humankind (e.g.
Rock engravings in Namibia, left side: Peet Alberts Koppie (A-D), right side: Mik Mountains (G-H). A) More than 1000 engravings can be found on rock ridges at Peet Albersts Koppie close to the town Kamanjab (
The animals depicted at the rock engravings in Namibia are members of the extant megafauna community of the region. From top to bottom: kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros, oryx Oryx gazella, white rhino Ceratotherium simum and giraffe Giraffa camelopardalis. Photos: oryx-engraving, oryx and giraffe: U. Zeller, others: T. Göttert.
We have to face the point that we cannot link the engravings with an extant ethnic group (
The illustration of megafauna-elements and the observation that large wildlife dominates prehistoric rock art applies in a similar way to the Aurignacian rock paintings from Europe, e.g. the Chauvet-Pont-d’Arc Cave in southeastern France, where particular paintings have been dated to be older than 32,000 years (von Petzinger and Nowell 2014). As stated above, the species community illustrated on the rock engravings in Namibia can still be found in the immediate vicinity of the place of creation of the rock art. In central Europe, the situation is completely different: The species that obviously served as a blueprint for the illustration of Aurignacian rock art have mostly disappeared. Some of these species – e.g. Equus ferus Boddaert, 1785, Crocuta crocuta (Erxleben, 1777) – disappeared only from the region but others disappeared everywhere – e.g. Ursus spelaeus Rosenmüller, 1794, Mammuthus primigenius (Blumenbach, 1799), Coelodonta antiquitatis Blumenbach, 1799 (
Since these Late Quaternary extinctions on a global scale were recognized by the scientific world in the nineteenth century, there is an ongoing debate about the causes, including climatic catastrophes, gradual climate change, and overkill by humans (
There has been an ongoing controversy about the original vegetation types in temperate Europe (
Comparison of central European and southern African megafauna communities at different points in time. Most species of the Pleistocene African megaherbivore guild still exist today. In central Europe, there was a change between warm-adapted and cold-adapted megafaunas. The arrival of modern humans in Europe went along with an extinction wave of the megafauna – consequently, the warm-adapted megafauna was not able to recover/return during the Early Holocene. The remaining / weakened megafauna of the Early Holocene in Europe was no longer able to create an open landscape leading to a dense forest. Since the Eemian Interglacial megafauna in central Europe largely went extinct, the extant / still existing African megafauna appears to be a good reference frame to study megafauna-ecosystem interactions that also occurred in central Europe during the Last Interglacial. Human activity but not climate was the main driver of the megafauna extinction, as Africa is the only example were the Pleistocene megafauna still exists. Animal sketches were adapted from the following sources: Palaeoloxodon: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elephas-antiquus.jpg licence: CC BY-SA 4.0; Stephanorhinus: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hemitoechus2011.jpg#file licence: CC BY-SA 4.0; Mammuthus and Coelodonta: Mauricio Anton in:
There has been a long-lasting dispute as to whether climatic changes, human activities, or the combination of both was responsible for a global wave of megafauna-extinctions (
In view of our comparative regional approach, there is an important difference between the African continent and all other parts of the world when it comes to a global wave of extinction of the megafauna as a result of the spread of modern human activity.
In the light of this special situation in Africa, where most of the Pleistocene megafauna species diversity still exists today, we aim to compare response patterns of selected taxa under different ecological conditions to reach a better understanding of the common mechanisms of the interrelations between land use and biodiversity (
The connection between Europe and Africa can also be attributed by looking at the dispersal and distribution of cattle on a global scale (
In Europe, on the other hand, the use of domesticated ungulates, whose “stem species” are already extinct (Bos primigenius) or nearly extinct (Equus ferus), can preserve ecosystem functions that could not be sustained without these domesticated ungulates. The domesticated forms act as representatives or surrogate taxa for species that have long since disappeared in their natural state. Under the heading of “rewilding” or so-called “naturalistic grazing”, a nature conservation philosophy has developed in Europe that is rooted in this concept of using domesticated forms as surrogate taxa for extinct species.
”Rewilding” as a concept has had much discussion since it was introduced and means different things to different people (
We have already pointed out in previous publications that the concept has limitations (
Estimation of the total global biomass related to humans, wild terrestrial mammals and large domesticated animals (livestock) – a comparison between the years 1900 and 2000 (upper chart). The lower chart shows the ratio of species diversity of extant terrestrial mammals (wild) as well as domesticated ungulate species (livestock). Sources: 1:
Livestock grazing in Africa – in terms of pastoralist grazing (typical in eastern Africa, Fig.
Naturalistic grazing in Europe makes use of domesticated ungulates, such as A: Bos primigenius f. taurus (Heck cattle) or B: Equus ferus f. caballus (Konik horse), to restore ecosystem functions. Cattle grazing systems in Africa can be conducted in the sense of herding pastoralists in Kenya (C) or by leaving the animals on their own on communal land in northern Namibia (D). Photos: A & B: U. Zeller, C & D: T. Göttert.
The aim is the implementation of areas whose spatial dimensions overcome national boundaries and therefore help to secure peace and political stability (
We can conclude that – despite all obvious differences between ecosystems in temperate Europe and in southern Africa – there are strong natural connections between both regions. To address the global impact of land use and climate change on biodiversity and ecosystem stability, holistic approaches on a trans-national scale are needed. By comparing ecological responses of selected and meaningful taxa in different regions, we want to differentiate between region-specific characteristics and universally applicable rules. We believe that such data leads to a better understanding of the complex interrelations between biodiversity and land use.
We are grateful to Prof. Dr. Peter Breunig, who introduced us to the region of the Mik Mountains and who guided us to the rock engravings at the Mik Mountains. We acknowledge the Zwillenberg-Tietz Stiftung for supporting visits to Namibia.